Roots of Hindu-Muslim Tension in India

Roots of Hindu-Muslim Tension in India India has had a long history of religious violence, stemming as early as the Middle Ages when Muslim expansion spread into the Indian peninsula to the British Invasion of the middle 19th century. Various events throughout history have contributed to the tension between the Hindus and the Muslims; some Indians converted to Islam to lessen tension, but the fragile coexistence between Indian Hindus and Indian Muslims continually gave way to violence between the two groups.       As basic context, Hinduism is considered one of the worlds oldest religions. It predates Christianity and Islam by centuries. Hinduism is a difficult religion to understand because it doesnt have a strictly structured set of beliefs. In more ways than one, Hinduism is inclusive of other religions, such as Christianity, Jainism, Buddhism, etc. It is often considered more of a way of life or a philosophical set of beliefs rather than a religion as other faiths would be considered to be. Hinduism views life as a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, with Karma acting as a guiding force. Islam is a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, who lived between 570-632 BCE. Followers of Islam are called Muslims and Muslims worship the Supreme Being, Allah, and follow his revelations contained in their sacred text, the Quran. This history of Hindu-Muslim tension has mostly been studied in political sciences, as it is one of the most striking examples of Indian Politics, and the question of how and why riots occur has been a pressing issue for years. However, such history is also discussed in religious- studies professors, such as Valerie Stoker, a religion philosophy and classics professor at Wright State University. Her book, Polemics, and Patronage in the City of Victory: VyÄ satÄ «rtha, Hindu Sectarianism, and the Sixteenth-Century Vijayanagara Court, uses the Vijayanagara Court as a way to understand the dynamic interaction between religious and royal institutions during the time period of 1346-1565. While Stokers main question is how did the patronage activities of Indias Vijayanagara Empire (c. 1346-1565) influence Hindu sectarian identities?, she addresses that the Vijayanagara Court was actually very selective in its patronage of religious institutions. The Vijayanagara Court was the precolonial Southern Indian primary political power, with Vijayanagara, meaning city of victory for its status as the center for emerging global economy. It attracted merchants and business from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. Because of the wealth Vijayanagara Court had acquired by the early 1500s, it had become one of the greatest and most diverse urban populations of the world. Due to the increased interest from the Middle East and invasion of northern India, it was primarily known as a Hindu wall against Muslim invasion. Geographically, Vijayanagara Court was located in the center of the country, encompassing people primarily of the Hindu and Christian faiths, as shown in Map 1. In Map 1, the region that is indicated by Vijayanagara is the only region that is still primarily Hindu and Christian, and its important to note that all of the other regions above have been marked with Muslim invasions, such as: Faruqi Imad Shahi Nizam Shahi Barid Shahi Qutb Shahi Shitab Khan The origins of the Vijayanagara Court have been noted to be the result of the Sangama Dynasty of 1336-1337, in which the rulers, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were commanders-in-chief when stationed in the Hoysala Empire to ward off the Muslims during the early invasion attempts of South India. The Hoysala Empire was the last of the Hindu states that survived the invasion at that time. However, these origins are not confirmed, but Stoker claims that after the death of Hoysala king, Veera Ballala III, during a battle against the Sultan of Madurai in 1343, the Hoysala Empire merged with the growing Vijayanagara empire. Until 1509, the Vijayanagara Court warded off five invasions from the Deccan Sultanates, five dynasties combined into one large empire. These five dynasties included the Muslim-ruled late medieval kingdoms of Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar of south-central India. This Sultanate seems to be what caused bitter relations between the Hindu and the Muslims bec ause at this point in time, beginning 1500 AD, India went through an extensive period of religious violence at the hands of the Sultans Army. Of the two sects of Islam, the perpetrators were Sunni Muslim and the primary victims were Hindus. Between the years of 1000 and 1500, the population of the Indian subcontinent had decreased by eighty million. Even the Hindus that has converted to Islam were not spared in the violence. Stoker primarily focuses on South India, and religion is mainly discussed in the chapter called Hindu, Ecumenical, Sectarian: Religion and the Vijayanagara Court, in which the above information stems from. However, it is important to note that the Vijayanagara Court in itself, as a strong Hindu Empire, had strict rules on which sect of Hinduism would primarily be followed and which sect had the governing power during the reign. Within Hinduism itself, there are many sects. These sects, since Hinduism has no central doctrine, follow traditions and beliefs in accordance of the three main gods: Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma. Shiva, being The Destroyer, Vishnu, being The Protector, and Brahma, being The Creator. The Hindu denominations who follow Brahma as their guiding force, are the ones that considered to be the most pure and the utmost followers of Hinduism. Historically, the Brahmins; followers of Brahma, were primarily the royalty or upper middle class. So, the Vijayanagara Court were also strong Brahmins, and Vijayanagara royals religious patronage played a critical role in shaping the various practical mechanisms that enabled the empire to function (Stoker, Chapter 6). Now, it is important to note that the Vijayanagara Court wasnt always governed by the Brahmins. Originally, when the empire was created, the founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were strong devotees of Shiva. Despite their sectarian preferences, the Vijayanagara rulers, on the whole, adopted the deliberate policy of tolerance towards all sects to incorporate them all within the policy. The next ruler after Harihara and Bukka Raya, Devaraya II, took over the empire and was deemed the most successful of all of the rulers that had power over the Vijayanagara Court. Devoutly religious, Devaraya II endowed Sri Vaishnava temples at Srirangam and Tirumalai, and favored Jain institutions in the capital and elsewhere since the highest form of devotion was found in intricate temples. Most importantly, Devaraya II employed Muslims in his army and allowed them to practice their religion freely. Thus, Vijayanagara royals well-maintained Indian traditions of tolerance and inclusivism that nevertheless privileged specific religious formations. That is quite different from European states in the same period, which, for the most part, waited until the Enlightenment to recognize the political value of religious tolerance. Yet while in some ways, these enlightened Indian attitudes toward religious diversity. To contrast the heavy emphasis on precolonial South India that Valerie Stoker places in her monograph, Audrey Truschke, a postdoctoral fellow at Stanford University, discusses the Northern Indian aspect of the Hindu-Muslim tension in a chapter of her new book, Culture of Encounters: Sanskrit at the Mughal Court. Truschke argues that most of the religious conflict India is fueled by ideological assumptions about that period [medieval times] rather than an accurate rendering of the subcontinents history. In pages 27-63, Truschke discusses the influence of Brahmins in the Mughal Empire, which was the primary governing Islamic empire of the North. The Mughal Empire was about a century later than the Vijayanagara Court, ruling during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, founded near the end of the Vijayanagara Court, in 1526. Babur was the founder of the Mughal Empire, and subsequently its first ruler. He invaded India from Central Asia with only 12,000 men, and defeated many larger armies, eventually forming the Mughal Empire. Humayun, Baburs son, lost control of his empire soon after taking the throne. With the help of his Persian advisors, Humayun regained his empire and even expanded to the South and East. It is important to note here the Persian influence and the help of Persian and Central Asian advisors straightened what was to be a long lasting cultural impact from the subcontinents western neighbors. Later during his reign, the presence of Persian advisors was a constant feature of his court. The Emperor Akbar the Great, who ruled the Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1605, was one of the most important Mughal rulers for fostering religious cohesion amongst Muslims and Hindus. His trusted friend and advisor, Abul Fazl, wrote a book, the Akbarnama (Truschke, Chapter 4), describing the rule of emperor Akbar including Akbars religious views and policies toward Hindus. Abul Fazl wrote a lot about the interactions and policies that the Muslim government established in response to the Hindu majority. This shows the tolerance of the Muslim leadership toward another religion in order to keep power peacefully. The text even talks about the similarities in the religions. The tolerance and acceptance shown to the Hindus by the Muslim rulers of the time were a politically savvy move. Ruling an empire where the majority of the population did not have the same religious views as the ruling class presented many obstacles, and required the Mughal rulers to practice religious sensitivity in orde r to maintain power. However, what is interesting about Truschkes argument in the first chapter of her book is that she also finds it important to highlight that the Muslim invasion wasnt all negative. While it is not to lessen the negative impact of Muslim Invasion on the Indian subcontinent, it is also important to note that Muslim rule in India from the 16th to 18th centuries was, in fact, one of tremendous cross-cultural respect and fertilization, not religious or cultural conflict. She said her research overturns the assumption that the Mughals were hostile to traditional Indian literature or knowledge systems. In fact, her findings reveal how Mughals supported and engaged with Indian thinkers and ideas. Early modern-era Muslims were, in fact, deeply interested in traditional Indian learning, which is largely housed in Sanskrit, says Truschke. For example, in the Vijayanagara Court, Brahmins were the primary governing Hindu denomination; similarly, in the Mughal Empire, the Brahmins had detailed interactions with the intellectuals of the Mughal Empire. The Brahmins became influential members of the empire through composing Sanskrit works for Mughal readers and through writing about their imperial experiences. Through this observation, it seems as though Truschke looks at the Hindu-Muslim interaction in a precolonial era of the Indian subcontinent more positively than in contrast to the more common, media-based views that assume that Muslim interaction and presence has always been malicious to Indian religions, languages, and culture. This example of Mughal artwork depicts Emperor Akbar presiding over discussions in the Hall of Religious Debate, ca. 1600. (Image credit: Chester Beatty Library, Dublin). The original painting is found in Dublin, and naturally, the image has been cleaned through computer graphics. This artwork is found in The Akbarnama. Akbarnama means Book of Akbar and it is an official, imperial biography, written by Akbars close friend and associate, Abul Fazl, who was mentioned earlier in this essay. In the illustrations to the text, Akbar is portrayed as a powerful, versatile, and heroic figure, as he seems to have been perceived by his contemporaries. In this painting, however, another aspect of the emperors personality is portrayed: his intense curiosity about other religions. Akbar is shown in the midst of a theological debate with Jesuit missionaries in his Ibadat Khana, or House of Worship. Hindu-Muslim has long been a source of conflict in India and the Indian subcontinent as a whole. While it was not discussed in this paper, religious violence began as early as the 7th century with the earliest of Muslim invasions, and that time onwards, the conflicts have only risen. From the Vijayanagara Court to the Mughal Empires, hundreds of invasions and wars have been fought. The Mughal Empire was the precursor to the British Empire, who brought a new wave of imperialism once again in the Indian subcontinent. This occurs in the beginning of the 19th century. The British benefited from pitting Hindus and Muslims against one another and portrayed themselves as neutral saviors who could keep ancient religious conflicts at bay. While colonialism ended in the 1940s, the modern Hindu right has found tremendous political value in continuing to proclaim and create endemic Hindu-Muslim conflict. More of the British invasion, and the Partition of 1947 will later be discussed in paper two . Works Cited:    Fazl, Abul. Akbar and the Jesuits. 1600-03 India. Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, Ireland. Chester Beatty Library Image Gallery. Chester Beatty Library. Web. 14 Feb. 2017.http://www.cbl.ie/cbl_image_gallery/collection/detail.aspx?imageId=99ImageNumber=T0004641collectionId=2page=8>. Mughal Artwork from the Akbarnama book written by Abul Fazl Truschke, Audrey. Culture of Encounters: Sanskrit at the Mughal Court. Columbia University Press, 2016, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/trus17362. Stoker, Valerie. Polemics and Patronage in the City of Victory: Vyasatirtha, Hindu Sectarianism, and the Sixteenth-Century Vijayanagara Court. Oakland, California, University of California Press, 2016, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1kc6jt3.

Our Country’s Good, Acting Advice For Act Essay

The scene starts off with just Ralph. I think I would tell the actor to look studious and intellectual, as Ralph would be making every effort to make the play to a very high standard so he can impress Captain Phillip in the hope of getting the promotion he has desired for some time. The mood should then change as soon as â€Å"Shitty† Meg enters on stage. She should walk on with a â€Å"tarty’ stride. She is old and thoroughly unattractive but she makes an over enthused effort to look glamorous and highly sexual. She should move toward Ralph in a very intimidating manor. Her sexual innuendoes should be delivered with a knowledgably bawdy tone and charisma, â€Å"I can play Lieutenant, I can play with any part you like†. When trying to convince Ralph into giving her a part in his play, â€Å"You don’t want a young woman peculiar, Lieutenant, they don’t know nothing†, I think she should grab Ralph’s leg as soon as she says the line; â€Å"Shut your eyes and I’ll play you as tight as a virgin†. Ralph should seem very intimidated and should jump up and back away from her in disgust. Meg should continue like this until Ralph has enough and shouts â€Å"Long! â€Å". At this point Meg should be slightly scared of Ralph’s anger but she keeps face by accusing Ralph of being a homosexual, â€Å"We thought you was a madge cull†, she should say her lines in a patronising matter-of-fact way to try and lower Ralph’s high persona of himself. The comic mood should continue when Sideway comes on the stage. He should be lively and full of character as he is your typical London â€Å"geezer†. He delivers his first few lines with an almost fake admiration for Ralph; â€Å"I am calling you Mr Clarke as one calls Mr Garick Mr Garick†. Sideway should have a very â€Å"in-your-face’ attitude to Ralph. Ralph should be very intimidated and suspicious but remain on the spot in a very militaristic manner to give the impress that he is not phased by Sideway’s very forward and friendly approach. Sideway should be walking around Ralph the whole time to try and show that he is nimble and enthusiastic; â€Å"top of my profession, Mr Clarke†. As Sideway delivers his lines, in a very reflective thoughtful manner, Ralph should gradually ease out of his rigid posture and himself seem to be thinking of the wonderful London which Sideway speaks of; â€Å"London bridge at dawn†. Then when delivering the line â€Å"plucking up courage, I pluck her†, he should remove a handkerchief out from Ralph’s back pocket, unknown to the audience or Ralph himself. Then when saying â€Å"the handkerchiefs† he should reveal the handkerchief in a very theatrical way so it is made clear to both the audience and Ralph that Sideway had stolen his handkerchief. Ralph should seem surprised but should then give the impression that he is still very important and pretending almost that nothing had happened. As soon as Dabby and Mary enter, we should realise how different the two characters are. Dabby should be confident and pushy whereas Mary should be quiet and highly reserved. Ralph should be infatuated with Mary as soon as he lays eyes on her. Although he can’t take his eyes off her I don’t think that Mary is either confident or keen enough yet to achieve eye contact with him. Dabby should push Mary forward quite forcefully after saying her line; â€Å"You asked to see Mary Brenham, Lieutenant. Here she is. â€Å"Mary is still very nervous and still doesn’t show any sort of interest in Ralph whatsoever. He intimidates her because he is one of the officers and she is also scared because she is about to audition for a play. Ralph should seem keen to want to talk to Mary rather than Dabby, purely because he is smitten with her â€Å"Do you know what a play is? â€Å". Dabby to him is just an annoyance â€Å"I’ve seen lots of plays, Lieutenant, so has Mary†. Mary must still remain quiet and nervous (this shown in the stage directions when it says that should say some of her lines â€Å"inaudibly’. Although Dabby is very keen to get Mary her part in the play because she feels that Ralph would be a good person for Mary to be with and sleep with on the ship â€Å"Mary wants to be in your play, Lieutenant† but should be very obvious about the fact that she wants in the play as well â€Å"and so do I†. Ralph wants to make sure he gives Mary the impression that he wants her to be in the play by telling her all of the good things that other people have said about her; â€Å"The Reverend Johnson told me you could read and write, Brenham†. The first time that Ralph’s and Mary’s meet should be when they both start reading the play to each other, â€Å"whilst there is life there is hope†. Every time the two look each other in the eyes when they are reading the play the looks should be held and prolonged to show an obvious attraction from both of them. Ralph for the first time in this scene is above the convicts and seems to have intellectual superiority over the two of them. The actor should say this lines in quite a patronising way not because he wants the convicts to know their place but because that is how he treats everyone â€Å"This is a comedy, they don’t really mean it†. Mary should seem very innocent and like a little girl. Especially when Ralph tries to explain the plot of the story which is rather bizarre â€Å"she falls in love with Silvia†. In the stage directions it actually says â€Å"Mary begins to giggle but tries to hold it back’. The mood then changes drastically as soon as Liz enters. Her stride should show that she is aggressive and very confident. Mary should very subtly sneak away and not say anything. Dabby and Liz should give each other evil glares. It says in the stage directions about the characters; â€Å"each holding her ground, each ready to pounce’. Ralph should seem unphased purely because he knows nothing of the hostility between the two characters; â€Å"Dabby: You can’t have her in the play, Lieutenant. Ralph: Why not? † Liz’s anger just mounts until the point at which she nearly cracks, the stage directions say that she â€Å"looks briefly at Dabby, as if to strike, then changes her mind’. The actress playing Liz should be forward and confident and intimidated by nothing â€Å"she snatches the book from Ralph and strides off’.

Qcf Support with Nutrition Essay

1.3Describe ways to resolve any difficulties or dilemmas about the choice of food and drink. * Giving them two or more choices and let them decide what they like, giving more details about the food will help them to choose. * Explain individuals about the importance of a healthy diet and encourage and support the m to choose healthy options and alternatives. * Explain individuals about the consequences of a poor diet choice. For example, obesity can lead to heart disease, varicose veins, diabetes and arthritis. High cholesterol and diets high in salt can lead to heart attacks and strokes. 1.4Describe how and when to seek additional guidance about and individual’s choice of food and drink. * When people reluctant, or refuse to eat certain types of food which have been noted in their support plan as a requirement for their condition. For example when an individual need to have a diabetic diet, a weight-reduction diet or gluten-free diet, if someone having swallowing difficulties , in such situations if someone is determined to ignore medical advice and to follow a different diet, this should be reported and discussed among the care team and the medical staff. * If the person have full mental capacity to understand the consequence and still ignore medical advice, it’s their choice and they have right to follow what they prefers * For children, people who are very confused and severely demented, they don’t have the full mental capacity to choose right diet for them and it should be discussed with care team and medical staff to decide what best for the individual’s best interest. 3.1Describe factors that help promote an individual’s dignity, comfort and enjoyment while eating and drinking. * It should be a safe, hygienic and pleasant place for people to eat food. Make sure the place is warm and have enough light, no noise distractions. * Let them decide where they like to sit when they having their meals. Some people like to site in the dining room with others, they will like the company and like to have a little chat each other while they eat. Some people like to have it in a privet place like their own room, for example if a person has difficulties which will require assistance they might not want others to see them while having meals. * Some people will need special aids to eating and drinking, for example, for example in the case of an individual with an arthritic condition provide cutlery with large handles which will help to hold them properly. * If a person needs feeding, make sure to give enough time for them to chew and swallow the food. * Presentation of the food will improve appetizing and more attractive and more likely to be eaten and enjoyed. 4.1Explain why it is important to be sure that an individual has chosen to finish eating and drinking before clearing away. Clearing away when a person has not finished their meal does not demonstrate respect and it reflects negatively on the overall service. Sometimes people will put their cutlery down and have a rest during a meal, and it may look like they have finished, but they may wish to continue eating after having a rest. 5.1Explain the importance of monitoring the food and drink an individual consumes and any difficulties they encounter. * It is important to pass on information and record if necessary about how much people are eating and drinking and any problem they might had while they were eating. * If a person is at risk of malnutrition, recording their dietary intake will show problems early on and action can be taken to prevent the situation getting worse. * Recording fluid intake and output can give a good indication about how well the heart and kidneys are working. * Recording difficulties of eating and drinking will help to identify chewing and swallowing difficulties and it will help to decide how to prepare food in a way that they can consume, for example choosing soft or pureed diet, cut vegetables and meat in to small, thickened fluids.

The Enron Dilemma And Catholic Social Teaching - 1573 Words

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